Option Pricing in Continuous Time

Stochastic Foundations for Finance

Lorenzo Naranjo

Fall 2024

The Replicating Portfolio Approach

  • Consider a derivative V written on a non-dividend paying stock S with maturity T that pays F(S) at maturity.
  • The binomial model implies that the derivative can be replicated by buying (or selling) \alpha_{t} units of the stock and \beta_{t} units of a bond with face value K and maturity T, respectively.
  • If we call V the value of such replicating portfolio, we have that at time t < T: V_{t} = \alpha_{t} S_{t} + \beta_{t} B_{t}.
  • In order to replicate the derivative, we want to make sure that the value of the portfolio at time t = T is equal to the payoff of the derivative, that is: V_{T} = H_{T}
  • For example, for a European call option H_{T} = \max(S_{T} - K, 0).

The Replicating Portfolio is Self-Financing

  • At time t+\Delta t, the value of the replicating portfolio is: V_{t + \Delta t} = \alpha_{t} S_{t + \Delta t} + \beta_{t} B_{t + \Delta t}, which implies that: \Delta V_{t} = \alpha_{t} \Delta S_{t} + \beta_{t} \Delta B_{t}.
  • The new composition of the portfolio at time t+\Delta t is chosen such that: V_{t + \Delta t} = \alpha_{t} S_{t + \Delta t} + \beta_{t} B_{t + \Delta t} = \alpha_{t + \Delta t} S_{t + \Delta t} + \beta_{t + \Delta t} B_{t + \Delta t} which shows that the portfolio is self-financing, i.e., no new funds are added or withdrawn from the portfolio.

Replication in Continuous-Time

  • As \Delta t \rightarrow 0, we have that: \begin{aligned} dV & = \alpha dS + \beta dB \\ & = \alpha dS + \beta (r B dt) \\ & = \alpha dS + (\beta B) r dt \\ \end{aligned}
  • And since V = \alpha S + \beta B \Rightarrow \beta B = V - \alpha S, we can conclude that: dV = r (V - \alpha S) dt + \alpha dS

Applying Ito’s Lemma

  • We will assume for the moment that V is a smooth function of S and t, that is, V = V(S,t).
  • Then, Ito’s Lemma implies that: \begin{aligned} dV & = \frac{\partial V}{\partial S} dS + \frac{1}{2} \frac{\partial^{2} V}{\partial S^{2}} (dS)^{2} + \frac{\partial V}{\partial t} dt \\ & = \left(\frac{1}{2} \sigma^{2} S^{2} \frac{\partial^{2} V}{\partial S^{2}} + \frac{\partial V}{\partial t}\right) dt + \frac{\partial V}{\partial S} dS \end{aligned}
  • Therefore: \left(\frac{1}{2} \sigma^{2} S^{2} \frac{\partial^{2} V}{\partial S^{2}} + \frac{\partial V}{\partial t}\right) dt + \textcolor{blue}{\frac{\partial V}{\partial S} dS} = r (V - \alpha S) dt + \textcolor{blue}{\alpha dS}

The Delta of the Derivative

  • First, the previous equation shows that replication works if and only if: \alpha = \frac{\partial V}{\partial S}
  • This is a fundamental relationship in derivatives pricing.
  • It states that the number of shares needed to replicate the derivative is equal its sensitivity to the underlying asset.
  • We call this quantity the delta (\Delta) of the derivative.
  • Also, note that by choosing \alpha equal to the delta of the derivative, it really does not matter what drift we have for the stock.
  • We will use this fact in a moment to define the risk-neutral probabilities in continuous-time.

The Fundamental Partial Differential Equation (PDE)

  • Second, it must be the case that: \frac{1}{2} \sigma^{2} S^{2} \frac{\partial^{2} V}{\partial S^{2}} + \frac{\partial V}{\partial t} = r \left(V - S \frac{\partial V}{\partial S}\right)
  • Therefore: \frac{\partial V}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{2} \sigma^{2} S^{2} \frac{\partial^{2} V}{\partial S^{2}} + r S \frac{\partial V}{\partial S} - r V = 0 subject to V_{T} = H_{T}.
  • This is the celebrated Black-Scholes partial differential equation (PDE) which allowed the authors to compute their influential formula in 1973!
  • Solving PDEs, in general, is very hard so we will resort to a different approach to price European call and put options.

The Risk-Neutral Pricing Approach

  • The replicating approach is insensitive to the drift of the stock.
  • As a matter of fact, the drift might even change based on whose thinking about the asset.
  • Since the previous reasoning is silent about the drift and the type of investor pricing the asset, we can assume in our reasoning that all investors are .
  • Even if this is not true in real markets, such assumption would not affect of the replicating-portfolio argument.

A Risk-Neutral World

  • In a world populated by risk-neutral investors, the price today of any non-dividend paying asset is equal to the expected payoff at maturity discounted at the risk-free rate, that is: X = e^{-rT} \operatorname{E}(X_{T})
  • Therefore, the drift of a non-dividend paying stock is the risk-free rate: dS = r S dt + \sigma S dz
  • The same is true for all derivatives written on the stock: dV = \underbrace{\left(r S \frac{\partial V}{\partial S} + \frac{1}{2} \sigma^{2} S^{2} \frac{\partial^{2} V}{\partial S^{2}} + \frac{\partial V}{\partial t}\right)}_{=rV} dt + \left(\sigma S \frac{\partial V}{\partial S}\right) dz
  • We recover the same equation as before!

Pricing a European Call Option

  • Consider a European call option written on a non-dividend paying stock with maturity T and strike price K.
  • The price of the call should then be: \begin{aligned} C & = e^{-r T} \operatorname{E}\left((S_{T} - K) \large\mathbb{1}_{{S_{T} > K}} \right) \\ & = e^{-r T} \operatorname{E}\left(S_{T} \large\mathbb{1}_{{S_{T} > K}} \right) - e^{-r T} \operatorname{E}\left(K \large\mathbb{1}_{{S_{T} > K}} \right) \\ & = S \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}) - K e^{-r T} \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) \end{aligned} where \begin{aligned} d_{1} & = \frac{\ln(S/K) + (r + \frac{1}{2} \sigma^{2}) T}{\sigma \sqrt{T}} \\ d_{2} & = d_{1} - \sigma \sqrt{T} \end{aligned}

Call Premium vs. Spot Price

Reconciling Both Pricing Approaches

  • It is tedious but straightforward to prove that: \alpha = \frac{\partial C}{\partial S} = \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}) \tag{1}
  • Also, we have that for a European call option: C = \alpha S + \beta B = S \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}) - K e^{-r T} \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) which because of (1) implies that: \beta = -\operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2})

Call Delta

Hedging the Call

  • Our analysis so far implies that to replicate a European call option, we need to go \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}) shares of stock and \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) risk-free bonds with face value K and maturity T.
  • The call is therefore a levered position in the underlying asset whose delta is given by \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}).
    • Since 0<\operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1})<1, the delta of the call for a non-dividend paying asset is bounded between 0 and 1.
  • As we saw in the previous slide, for a given spot price, the delta of the call represents the slope coefficient of the tangency line at that point.

Pricing a European Put Option

  • Consider now a European put option with the same characteristics as the previous call.
  • According to put-call parity, it must be the case that: ` C - P = S_{0} - K e^{-r T}
  • Hence, \begin{aligned} P & = C - (S - K e^{-rT}) \\ & = S \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}) - K e^{-r T} \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) - (S - K e^{-rT}) \\ & = K e^{-r T} (1 - \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2})) - S (1 - \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1})) \\ & = K e^{-r T} \operatorname{\Phi}(-d_{2}) - S \operatorname{\Phi}(-d_{1}) \end{aligned}

Put Premium vs. Spot Price

Put Delta

Hedging the Put

  • We can use put-call parity to compute \alpha for the put: \alpha = \frac{\partial P}{\partial S} = \frac{\partial (C - S + K e^{-rT})}{\partial S} = \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}) - 1 = -\operatorname{\Phi}(-d_{1}) < 0
  • The fact that we also have P = \alpha S + \beta B also implies that: \beta = \operatorname{\Phi}(-d_{2}) > 0
  • Therefore, to replicate a European put option, we need to go \operatorname{\Phi}(-d_{1}) shares of stock and \operatorname{\Phi}(-d_{2}) risk-free bonds with face value K and maturity T.

Finishing In-The-Money

  • Remember that we showed that: \operatorname{P}(S_{T} > K) = \operatorname{E}\left(\large\mathbb{1}_{{S_{T} > K}}\right) = \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) which also implies that: \operatorname{P}(S_{T} < K) = 1 - \operatorname{P}(S_{T} > K) = 1 - \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) = \operatorname{\Phi}(-d_{2})
  • Therefore, the risk-neutral probability that the call will expire in-the-money is equal to \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) whereas the risk-neutral probability that the put finishes in-the-money is given by \operatorname{\Phi}(-d_{2}).

Example 1 Consider a non-dividend paying stock that currently trades for $100. The risk-free rate is 4% per year, continuously compounded and constant for all maturities. The instantaneous volatility of returns is 25% per year. Consider at-the-money call and put options written on the stock with maturity 9 months. Then, \begin{aligned} d_{1} & = \frac{\ln(100/100) + (0.04 + 0.5(0.25)^{2})(0.75)}{0.25\sqrt{0.75}} = 0.2468 \\ d_{2} & = 0.2468 - 0.25\sqrt{0.75} = 0.0303 \end{aligned} Therefore, \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}) = 0.5975 and \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) = 0.5121, which implies that: \begin{aligned} C & = 100(0.5975) - 100e^{-0.04(0.75)}(0.5121) = \$10.05 \\ P & = 100e^{-0.04(0.75)}(1 - 0.5121) - 100(1 - 0.5975) = \$7.10 \end{aligned}

The Impact of Volatility

Option Premium vs. Volatility

  • One of the most important determinants of option prices in the Black-Scholes model is volatility.
  • We can show that for European call and put options: \frac{\partial C}{\partial \sigma} = \frac{\partial P}{\partial \sigma} = S \operatorname{\Phi}^{'}(d_{1}) \sqrt{T} > 0. \tag{2}
  • Hence, both European call and put options increase in value as volatility increases.
  • Moreover, this also implies that there is a one-on-one relationship between option value and volatility, i.e., we can use volatility to quote prices and vice-versa.
  • The volatility that matches the observed price of an option is called the implied volatility.

Example 2 Consider a non-dividend paying stock that currently trades for $100. The risk-free rate is 5% per year, continuously compounded and constant for all maturities. An ATM European call option written on the stock with maturity 12 months trades for $16. We can check that \sigma=34.66\% prices the call correctly: \begin{aligned} d_{1} & = \frac{\ln(100/100) + (0.05 + 0.5(0.3466)^{2})(1)}{0.3466\sqrt{1}} = 0.3176 \\ d_{2} & = 0.3358 - 0.3466\sqrt{1} = -0.0290 \\ \end{aligned} Therefore, \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{1}) = 0.6246 and \operatorname{\Phi}(d_{2}) = 0.4884, which implies that C = 100(0.6246) - 100e^{-0.05(1)}(0.4884) = \$16.00

How Can We Compute the Implied Volatility?

  • Unfortunately, it is not possible to solve analytically for the implied volatility.
  • For a call option, for example, it involves solving numerically for \sigma: C_{0} = C(\sigma_{\mathit{imp}})
  • Alternatively, we could tabulate the price of a call option for different values of \sigma (using the same parameters as the previous example):
\sigma 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
C 5.28 6.80 8.59 10.45 12.34 14.23 16.13 18.02
  • We can see that \sigma=35\% gives a price of \$16.13 for the call, which is quite close to the true implied volatility of 34.66%.

Implied Volatility for a Call Option